Five centuries of Cirsium ehrenbergii Sch. Bip. (Asteraceae) in Mexico, from Huitzquilitl to Cardo Santo: History, ethnomedicine, pharmacology and chemistry.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Several medicinal plants, including the endemic herb Cirsum ehrenbergii (Asteraceae), have been documented in manuscripts, medical and botanical books written in Mexico since the XVI century until the present. This unique circumstance is a real window in the time that allows to investigate historical and contemporary ethnopharmacological knowledge. AIM OF THE STUDY: To examine the persistence, disappearance, and transformation of ethnomedicinal knowledge of C. ehrenbergii along time. Also, to investigate the chemistry and pharmacology of this species in relation to its historical and present day main ethnomedical applications related to Central Nervous System and inflammation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A thorough review was performed of written sources of medicinal plants from XVI and onwards. For the pharmacological studies, the organic extracts were tested in mice models to assess its antidepressant and anti-inflammatory properties. The active extracts were studied chemically. The isolated compounds were identified by 1H, 13C NMR, or characterized by GC-MS. RESULTS: Cirsum ehrenbergii was illustrated for the first time (1552) in the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Booklet of Medicinal Plants of the Indians) and named in the Nahuatl native language as huitzquilitl (edible thistle). It was there recommended as nigris sanguinis remedium (remedy for black blood), and for the treatment of illnesses with an inflammatory component. Nigris sanguinis was well known in the European medicine of that time and currently it has been interpreted as "depression". At the present time, peasants and native population in Mexico mainly name C. ehrenbergii in Spanish as cardo Santo (holy thistle). Its original Nahuatl name has been almost forgotten. However, these communities use this species, among other maladies, to heal "nervios" (anxiety and/or depression) and for anti-inflammatory purposes. These ailments and treatments resemble those recorded in the Libellus and in several medicinal plant books along centuries. The ethanol extract of C. ehrenbergii roots showed antidepressant-like activity in mice administered at 300 mg/kg, as indicated by the forced swim test (FST). The glycosylated flavonoid linarin was identified as antidepressant principle and was active at the doses of 30 and 60 mg/kg in the FST. Regarding to anti-inflammatory activity, the most active was the methylene chloride extract of the aerial parts, which contains taraxasterol, pseudotaraxasterol, ß-sitosterol and stigmasterol. CONCLUSIONS: Cirsium ehrenbergii extracts possess antidepressant-like (roots, EtOH) and anti-inflammatory (aerial parts, CH2Cl2) properties, containing active compounds. Our results sustain historical and present day ethnomedical applications of this species documented along five centuries.

Potent Anti-amoebic Effects of Ibogaine, Voacangine and the Root Bark Alkaloid Fraction of Tabernaemontana arborea.

Plants of Tabernaemontana species have several pharmacological activities including antimicrobial effects. Amoebiasis continues to be a public health problem, with increasing evidence of resistance to metronidazole. In this study, we assessed the effect of the alkaloid fraction of T. arborea root bark and the alkaloids ibogaine and voacangine on the viability and infectivity of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites. Cultures were exposed to 0.1 - 10 µg/mL for 24, 48 and 72 h, and viability was then determined using a tetrazolium dye reduction assay and type of cellular death analyzed by flow cytometry. Results showed that the alkaloid fraction, but mainly ibogaine and voacangine alkaloids, exhibited potent dose-dependent anti-amoebic activity at 24 h post-exposure (IC50 4.5 and 8.1 µM, respectively), comparable to metronidazole (IC50 6.8 µM). However, the effect decreased after 48 and 72 h of exposure to concentrations below 10 µg/mL, suggesting that the alkaloids probably were catabolized to less active derivatives by the trophozoites. The treatment of trophozoites with the IC50 s for 24 h induced significant morphological changes in the trophozoites, slight increase in granularity, and death by apoptonecrosis. The capacity of T. arborea alkaloids to inhibit the development of amoebic liver abscesses in hamsters was evaluated. Results showed that even when the treatments reduced the number of amoebic trophozoites in tissue sections of livers, they were unable to limit the formation of abscesses, suggesting their rapid processing to inactive metabolites. This work leaves open the possibility of using Tabernaemontana alkaloids as a new alternative for amoebiasis control.

Optimization of rifampicin encapsulation in PLGA polymeric reservoirs.

Rifampicin is one of the most commonly used antibiotics for treating tuberculosis, but shows low bioavailability and requires long-term administration, and hence its use may result in severe side effects. Encapsulation of rifampicin in polymeric reservoirs allows it to be administered locally and improves its pharmacological action. High rifampicin loading is crucial for obtaining an adequate therapeutic effect. Generally, the drug loading is a complex function of reservoir fabrication parameters. In the current work, we systematically varied the drug (rifampicin), polymer (PLGA) and dispersed phase contents as well as the solvent evaporation rate, particle size and number of particle washing cycles to characterize the challenges involved in encapsulating rifampicin. Physical insight into the low encapsulation efficiencies was provided, as well as an optimization of fabrication conditions to achieve higher drug loading levels. The particle solidification stage was found in the current work to be the most crucial step, where a significant amount of rifampicin was lost enhanced by its solubility in the aqueous medium. Increases in polymer concentration, solvent evaporation rate and particle size each significantly improved the drug loading by hindering of solvent-assisted escape of the drug. Based on our observation of the drug loading being extremely sensitive to the particle recovery and washing procedure after the solvent evaporation, most of the encapsulated rifampicin was concluded to be located on or very near the reservoir surface. Encapsulation could be significantly improved by fabricating multiple emulsions, especially double w/o/w emulsions, but the resultant particles were relatively large and porous, which might be a drawback for drug administration.

Antimycobacterial Activity of Alkaloids and Extracts from Tabernaemontana alba and T. arborea.

Tuberculosis is the main cause of death from a single infectious agent. Globally, according to the World Health Organization, in 2018, there were an estimated 1.2 million tuberculosis deaths. Moreover, there is a continuous appearance of drug-resistant strains. Thus, development of new antituberculosis medicines should receive high priority. Plant-derived natural products are promising candidates for this purpose. We therefore screened alkaloid extracts obtained from the root and stem barks of the Mexican Apocynaceae species Tabernaemontana alba and Tabernaemontana arborea, as well as the pure alkaloids ibogaine, voacangine, and voacamine, tested for activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and cytotoxicity to mammalian Vero cells using the resazurin microtiter and the MTT assays, respectively. The extracts were analyzed by GC-MS and HPLC-UV. T. arborea root bark alkaloid extract showed the highest activity against M. tuberculosis (MIC100 = 7.8 µg/mL) of the four extracts tested. HPLC suggested that voacangine and voacamine were the major components. The latter was isolated by column chromatography, and its chemical structure was elucidated by 1H and 13C NMR, and MS. Unambiguous assignation was performed by HSQC, HMBC, and NOESY experiments. Voacamine is a dimeric bis-indole-type alkaloid and is 15 times more potent than the monomeric ibogan-type alkaloids ibogaine and voacangine (MIC100 = 15.6, 250.0, and 250.0 µg/mL, respectively). However, all of these compounds showed cytotoxicity to Vero cells, with a poor selectivity index of 1.00, 0.16, and 1.42, respectively. This is the first report of voacamine activity against M. tuberculosis.

(2Z)-3-Hydroxy-3-(4-R-Phenyl)-Prop-2-Enedithioic Acids as New Antituberculosis Compounds.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Compounds including a sulfur-containing scaffold have been shown to be key scaffolds in various antituberculosis agents. Interestingly, the 3-hydroxy-3-phenyl-prop-2-enedithioic acids 11a-j have, to the best of our knowledge, not been previously described as antituberculosis agents. PURPOSE: In the present study, we investigated the role of substituents attached to the phenyl ring of a 3-hydroxy-3-phenyl-prop-2-enedithioic acid scaffold (compounds 11a-j) in inhibiting the growth of M. tuberculosis strain H37Rv. METHODS: (Z)-3-hydroxy-3-(4-R-phenyl)-prop-2-enedithioic acids 11b-j, with R groups including various electron-donating or electron-withdrawing groups, were designed by structurally modifying the lead compound 11a. The syntheses of 11a-j involved each one-step procedure starting from the corresponding substituted acetophenone. Compounds 11a-j were tested against M. tuberculosis strain H37Rv to evaluate their bacterial growth inhibitory activities. ADMET profiles were predicted by employing three different methods. In addition, molecular docking studies were carried out, based on the molecular similarities of the synthesized compounds with ethionamide (5), on the active site of the M. tuberculosis H37Rv (3R)-hydroxyacyl-ACP (HadAB) dehydratase heterodimer. RESULTS: The antituberculosis activities of compounds 11a-j could be explained in terms of the presence of electron-donating or electron-withdrawing substituents on the aromatic ring of the substituted 3-hydroxy-3-phenyl)-prop-2-enedithioic acid core. The activity and selectivity index (SI) value of (Z)-3-hydroxy-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-prop-2-enedithioic acid 11e suggested that this compound could be used for the design of novel antituberculosis agents. Most of the synthesized molecules showed an acceptable ADME profile and a low probability of being toxic. Docking studies of 11d and 11e showed them forming hydrogen bonds with the ACys61 residue of the HadAB enzyme. CONCLUSION: Our results suggested that the antituberculosis compound 11e could be used for the design of novel antituberculosis agents.

New Insights into the Methylation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Heparin Binding Hemagglutinin Adhesin Expressed in Rhodococcus erythropolis.

In recent years, knowledge of the role that protein methylation is playing on the physiopathogenesis of bacteria has grown. In Mycobacterium tuberculosis, methylation of the heparin binding hemagglutinin adhesin modulates the immune response, making this protein a subunit vaccine candidate. Through its C-terminal lysine-rich domain, this surface antigen interacts with heparan sulfate proteoglycans present in non-phagocytic cells, leading to extrapulmonary dissemination of the pathogen. In this study, the adhesin was expressed as a recombinant methylated protein in Rhodococcus erythropolis L88 and it was found associated to lipid droplets when bacteria were grown under nitrogen limitation. In order to delve into the role methylation could have in host-pathogen interactions, a comparative analysis was carried out between methylated and unmethylated protein produced in Escherichia coli. We found that methylation had an impact on lowering protein isoelectric point, but no differences between the proteins were found in their capacity to interact with heparin and A549 epithelial cells. An important finding was that HbhA is a Fatty Acid Binding Protein and differences in the conformational stability of the protein in complex with the fatty acid were observed between methylated and unmethylated protein. Together, these results suggest that the described role for this mycobacteria protein in lipid bodies formation could be related to its capacity to transport fatty acids. Obtained results also provide new clues about the role HbhA methylation could have in tuberculosis and point out the importance of having heterologous expression systems to obtain modified proteins.

Total syntheses and antiproliferative activities of prenostodione and its analogues.

A high-yielding total synthesis of the indole alkaloid prenostodione was completed in 4 steps and 44% overall yield from 1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid. The expedient syntheses of prenostodiones containing distinct substituents at the para position of the phenyl frame underscored the scope of this methodology. The cytotoxic activities of the tert-butyl esters of prenostodione analogues were tested using six tumor cell lines. Preliminary structure-activity studies revealed the importance of the identity of the aromatic substituent at the C-4 position for cytotoxic activity. The IC50 values of these compounds were found to compare satisfactorily with those of the commercially available drugs etoposide and cisplatin. Furthermore, the compounds with, respectively, -OMe (14d) and -NO2 (14f) groups at C-4 were more selective than these control compounds in PC-3, K-562, and MCF-7 cells. Also, computational studies were carried out to determine the ADMET profiles and passive membrane permeabilities of the compounds. The results suggested the promise of 14d and 14f as hit compounds for the development of new anticancer agents.

Selection of a Single Domain Antibody, Specific for an HLA-Bound Epitope of the Mycobacterial Ag85B Antigen.

T cells recognizing epitopes on the surface of mycobacteria-infected macrophages can impart protection, but with associated risk for reactivation to lung pathology. We aimed to identify antibodies specific to such epitopes, which carry potentials for development toward novel therapeutic constructs. Since epitopes presented in the context of major histocompatibility complex alleles are rarely recognized by naturally produced antibodies, we used a phage display library for the identification of monoclonal human single domain antibody producing clones. The selected 2C clone displayed T cell receptor-like recognition of an HLA-A*0201 bound 199KLVANNTRL207 peptide from the Ag85B antigen, which is known to be an immunodominant epitope for human T cells. The specificity of the selected domain antibody was demonstrated by solid phase immunoassay and by immunofluorescent surface staining of peptide loaded cells of the T2 cell line. The antibody affinity binding was determined by biolayer interferometry. Our results validated the used technologies as suitable for the generation of antibodies against epitopes on the surface of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infected cells. The potential approaches forward the development of antibody in immunotherapy of tuberculosis have been outlined in the discussion.

Synthesis and antituberculosis activity of new acylthiosemicarbazides designed by structural modification.

Acylthiosemicarbazides 8a-n were designed by structural modification of lead Compound 7. The syntheses of 8a-n involve a five-step procedure starting from carboxylic acids. Compounds 8a-n were tested against three Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains to measure their inhibitory antituberculosis activities. These activities could be explained according to the presence or absence of the chlorine substituent in the aromatic ring of the amide joined to the thiosemicarbazide core. Thiosemicarbazide derivative 8n is a candidate for the development of novel antitubercular agents. Ongoing studies are focused on exploring the mechanism by which these compounds inhibit M. tuberculosis cell growth.

Isolation of Mycobacterium lepromatosis and Development of Molecular Diagnostic Assays to Distinguish Mycobacterium leprae and M. lepromatosis.

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium leprae was thought to be the exclusive causative agent of leprosy until Mycobacterium lepromatosis was identified in a rare form of leprosy known as diffuse lepromatous leprosy (DLL). METHODS: We isolated M. lepromatosis from a patient with DLL and propagated it in athymic nude mouse footpads. Genomic analysis of this strain (NHDP-385) identified a unique repetitive element, RLPM, on which a specific real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay was developed. The RLPM assay, and a previously developed RLEP quantitative polymerase chain reaction assay for M. leprae, were validated as clinical diagnostic assays according to Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments guidelines. We tested DNA from archived histological sections, patient specimens from the United States, Philippines, and Mexico, and US wild armadillos. RESULTS: The limit of detection for the RLEP and RLPM assays is 30 M. leprae per specimen (0.76 bacilli per reaction; coefficient of variation, 0.65%-2.44%) and 122 M. lepromatosis per specimen (3.05 bacilli per reaction; 0.84%-2.9%), respectively. In histological sections (n = 10), 1 lepromatous leprosy (LL), 1 DLL, and 3 Lucio reactions contained M. lepromatosis; 2 LL and 2 Lucio reactions contained M. leprae; and 1 LL reaction contained both species. M. lepromatosis was detected in 3 of 218 US biopsy specimens (1.38%). All Philippines specimens (n = 180) were M. lepromatosis negative and M. leprae positive. Conversely, 15 of 47 Mexican specimens (31.91%) were positive for M. lepromatosis, 19 of 47 (40.43%) were positive for M. leprae, and 2 of 47 (4.26%) contained both organisms. All armadillos were M. lepromatosis negative. CONCLUSIONS: The RLPM and RLEP assays will aid healthcare providers in the clinical diagnosis and surveillance of leprosy.

Interaction of mycobacteria with Plasmin(ogen) affects phagocytosis and granuloma development.

Plasminogen and plasmin are fundamental components of the fibrinolytic system that interact with microorganisms generating different immunopathological effects. The molecules of Mycobacterium tuberculosis interplaying with plasminogen have already been identified and characterized. In this work, we studied the effects of plasmin(ogen) bound toMycobacterium bovisCalmette-Guérin (BCG) on phagocytosis in THP1 macrophages as well as in granuloma formation and development on in vitrohuman granuloma model. For this purpose, BCG was coated with plasminogen and plasmin, obtained after activation of zymogen by tissue plasminogen activator. The results showed a significant reduction in the number of bacteria phagocytosed by macrophages in presence of plasminogen or plasmin on BCG surface. On the other hand, at 3 days BCG/plasminogen/plasmin induced an increase granuloma numbers with respect to those induced by uncoated bacteria. BCG/plasminogen/environments also showed a significant increase of IL-6 secretion. At 7 days, a reduced number of granulomas and an increased number of bacteria was observed with respect to uncoated BCG environment. Altogether, these results showed that plasmin(ogen) on the mycobacterial surface affects phagocytosis, granuloma development and the cytokine context, thus resulting in an increased number of bacteria in granulomas.

Trypanocidal and toxicological assessment in vitro and in silico of three sesquiterpene lactones from Asteraceae plant species.

We report the effect of the Sesquiterpene Lactones Ambrosin, Incomptine B and Glaucolide E against seven strains of Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas Disease. These compounds were isolated from Parthenium hysterophorus, Decachaeta incompta, and Vernonia liatroides, respectively. We evaluated by flow cytometry the viability of epimastigotes. Ambrosin was the most effective, then Incomptine B, and Glaucolide E (IC50 = 67.1, 123.7, and 215.1 µM, respectively). These compounds were more potent than the drugs Benznidazole (IC50 > 400 µM) and Nifurtimox (IC50 = 199.7 to >400 µM). Toxicity to mammalian Vero and Jurkat cells was also determined in vitro. All the compounds had a poor selective index (0.003-1.859). Toxicoinformatics is useful to forecast in silico toxicological and pharmacokinetic properties. Ambrosin and Incomptine B may not possess mutagenic, tumorigenic, or reproductive effects. Glaucolide E could possess a low mutagenic and high tumorigenic effects, and probably target the Amine Oxidase A, Prostaglandin and G/H Synthase I. Interestingly, Ambrosin, Incomptine B and Glaucolide E, comply with Lipinsky Rule of Five, indicating a suitable pharmacokinetic profile. Ambrosin and Incomptine B possess high trypanocidal activity, and pharmaceutical properties suitable for development; however, their safety profile should be optimized by structural modifications.

Antimycobacterial activity of an anthracycline produced by an endophyte isolated from Amphipterygium adstringens.

The search for new compounds effective against Mycobacterium tuberculosis is still a priority in medicine. The evaluation of microorganisms isolated from non-conventional locations offers an alternative to look for new compounds with antimicrobial activity. Endophytes have been successfully explored as source of bioactive compounds. In the present work we studied the nature and antimycobacterial activity of a compound produced by Streptomyces scabrisporus, an endophyte isolated from the medicinal plant Amphipterygium adstringens. The active compound was detected as the main secondary metabolite present in organic extracts of the streptomycete and identified by NMR spectroscopic data as steffimycin B (StefB). This anthracycline displayed a good activity against M. tuberculosis H37Rv ATCC 27294 strain, with MIC100 and SI values of 7.8 µg/mL and 6.42, respectively. When tested against the rifampin mono resistant M. tuberculosis Mtb-209 pathogen strain, a better activity was observed (MIC100 of 3.9 µg/mL), suggesting a different action mechanism of StefB from that of rifampin. Our results supported the endophyte Streptomyces scabrisporus as a good source of StefB for tuberculosis treatment, as this anthracycline displayed a strong bactericidal effect against M. tuberculosis, one of the oldest and more dangerous human pathogens causing human mortality.

Mexican Propolis: A Source of Antioxidants and Anti-Inflammatory Compounds, and Isolation of a Novel Chalcone and ε-Caprolactone Derivative.

The propolis produced by bees are used in alternative medicine for treating inflammation, and infections, presumably due to its antioxidant properties. In this context, five propolis from México were investigated to determine their inhibitory lipid peroxidation properties. The ethyl acetate extract from a red propolis from Chiapas State (4-EAEP) was the most potent (IC50 = 1.42 ± 0.07 µg/mL) in the TBARS assay, and selected for further studies. This extract afforded two new compounds, epoxypinocembrin chalcone (6), and an ε-caprolactone derivative (10), as well as pinostrobin (1), izalpinin (2), cinnamic acid (3), pinocembrin (4), kaempherol (5), 3,3-dimethylallyl caffeate in mixture with isopent-3-enyl caffeate (7a + 7b), 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid (8), rhamnetin (9) and caffeic acid (11). The HPLC profile, anti-mycobacterial, and antioxidant properties of this extract was also determined. Most of the isolated compounds were also tested by inhibition of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in challenged mouse bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMCs), and DPPH. Their anti-inflammatory activity was evaluated by TPA, and MPO (myeloperoxidase) activity by ear edema test in mice. The most potent compounds were 7a + 7b in the TBARS assay (IC50 = 0.49 ± 0.06 µM), and 2 which restored the ROS baseline (3.5 µM). Our results indicate that 4-EAEP has anti-oxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties due to its active compounds, suggesting it has anti-allergy and anti-asthma potential.

Mycobacterium lepraemurium uses TLR-6 and MR, but not lipid rafts or DC-sign, to gain access into mouse macrophages.

OBJECTIVE/BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium lepraemurium (MLM), the etiologic agent of murine leprosy, is an intracellular parasite of macrophages; the mechanism used by this bacterium to enter macrophages is not known. The fate of the MLM phagosome inside macrophages is also unknown. This study was conducted to investigate how MLM enters macrophages and to define the maturation process of MLM phagosome inside macrophages. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Peritoneal macrophages were incubated in the presence of mannan-bovine serum albumin (BSA), and antibodies to known macrophage receptors, including, anti-FcγRIII/RII (anti-CD16/32), anti-CD35 (anti-CR1), anti-TLR2, anti-TLR4, anti-TLR6, anti-CD14, and anti-dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN). Then, macrophages were challenged with Iris Fuchsia-stained MLM, at a multiplicity of infection of 50:1. The blocking effect of the antibodies (and mannan-BSA) used was analyzed using direct microscopy and flow cytometry. The maturation process of MLM phagosomes was visualized by their interaction with antibodies to Rab5, Rab7, proton ATPase, and cathepsin D, by confocal microscopy. RESULTS: Only mannan-BSA and anti-TLR6 antibody significantly blocked the entry of MLM into macrophages. None of the other antibodies, including that for DC-SIGN, meaningfully inhibited the endocytic process. We also found that MLM is a fusiogenic mycobacterium. This was deduced from the orderly association of MLM phagosomes with Rab5, Rab7, Proton ATPase, and lysosomes (cathepsin D). CONCLUSION: Fusion of MLM phagosomes with lysosomes seems to be a necessary event for the intracellular multiplication of MLM; similar to Mycobacterium leprae, this microorganism hardly grows on artificial, synthetic, bacteriologic media.

High-content screening technology combined with a human granuloma model as a new approach to evaluate the activities of drugs against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

Tuberculosis remains a major health problem due to the emergence of drug-resistant strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Some models have provided valuable information about drug resistance and efficacy; however, the translation of these results into effective human treatments has mostly proven unsuccessful. In this study, we adapted high-content screening (HCS) technology to investigate the activities of antitubercular compounds in the context of an in vitro granuloma model. We observed significant shifts in the MIC50s between the activities of the compounds under extracellular and granuloma conditions.

The tuberculous granuloma: an unsuccessful host defence mechanism providing a safety shelter for the bacteria?

One of the main features of the immune response to M. Tuberculosis is the formation of an organized structure called granuloma. It consists mainly in the recruitment at the infectious stage of macrophages, highly differentiated cells such as multinucleated giant cells, epithelioid cells and Foamy cells, all these cells being surrounded by a rim of lymphocytes. Although in the first instance the granuloma acts to constrain the infection, some bacilli can actually survive inside these structures for a long time in a dormant state. For some reasons, which are still unclear, the bacilli will reactivate in 10% of the latently infected individuals, escape the granuloma and spread throughout the body, thus giving rise to clinical disease, and are finally disseminated throughout the environment. In this review we examine the process leading to the formation of the granulomatous structures and the different cell types that have been shown to be part of this inflammatory reaction. We also discuss the different in vivo and in vitro models available to study this fascinating immune structure.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv induces ectosome release in human polymorphonuclear neutrophils.

Ectocytosis, the cellular process by which ectosomes (Ects) are released, is an important phenomenon by which eukaryotic cells exchange molecular information. Ects released from N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLP)-activated human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) have recently been characterized. Molecules such as CD35 and phosphatidylserine (PS), and enzymes such as myeloperoxidase and elastase were found in these vesicles, suggesting that Ects from PMNs could function as ecto-organelles with anti-microbial activity. Here we show for the first time that human PMNs release ectosomes in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv infection. We found that the release of ectosomes was not associated exclusively with mycobacterial infection since infection with other microorganisms (e.g., Leishmania mexicana, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli or activation with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)) also induced ectocytosis. Ects release started as early as 10min after infection or activation. Expression of CD35, PS, Rab5, Rab7 and gp91(Phox), a subunit of Cyt b555 was demonstrated on the Ects membrane. Based on our observations we conclude that Ects are released from human neutrophils in response to cell activation and that this process is not related to apoptosis.

Effect of reactive oxygen intermediaries on the viability and infectivity of Mycobacterium lepraemurium.

Murine leprosy is a natural disease of the mouse, the most popular model animal used in biomedical research; the disease is caused by Mycobacterium lepraemurium (MLM), a successful parasite of macrophages. The aim of the study was to test the hypothesis that MLM survives within macrophages because it highly resists the toxic effects of the reactive oxygen intermediaries produced by these cells in response to infection by the microorganism. MLM cells were incubated in the presence of horseradish peroxidase (HRPO)-H(2)O(2)-halide for several periods of time. The peroxidative effect of this system was investigated by assessing the changes occurred in (a) lipid composition; (b) viability; and (c) infectivity of the microorganism. Changes in the lipid composition of peroxidated- vs. intact-MLM were analysed by thin layer chromatography. The effect of the peroxidative system on the viability and infectivity of MLM was measured by the alamar blue reduction assay and by its ability to produce an infection in the mouse, respectively. Peroxidation of MLM produced drastic changes in the lipid envelope of the microorganism, killed the bacteria and abolished their ability to produce an in vivo infection in the mouse. In vitro, MLM is highly susceptible to the noxious effects of the HRPO-H(2)O(2)-halide system. Although the lipid envelope of MLM might protect the microorganism from the peroxidative substances produced at 'physiological' concentrations in vivo, the success of MLM as a parasite of macrophages might rather obey for other reasons. The ability of MLM to enter macrophages without triggering these cells' oxidative response and the lack of granular MPO in mature macrophages might better explain its success as an intracellular parasite of these cells.